Michael Nielsen – Why aliens will have a different tech stack than us

Scientific progress is not a linear, algorithmic process but a complex, path-dependent evolution characterized by long-lasting verification loops and shifting paradigms. The transition from Newtonian mechanics to general relativity, or the delayed acceptance of heliocentrism, demonstrates that scientific breakthroughs often require more than empirical evidence; they demand new conceptual frameworks and the persistence of diverse research programs. While AI models like AlphaFold offer powerful predictive capabilities, they function differently from traditional explanatory theories, necessitating new methods for extracting fundamental principles from complex data. Ultimately, the "tech tree" of human knowledge remains vast and largely unexplored, suggesting that future civilizations might develop entirely different technological stacks. Deep learning and other modern advancements highlight the importance of balancing routine productivity with high-variance, long-term exploration to navigate the persistent bottlenecks of scientific discovery.